Collagen producing plants and methods of generating and using same

ABSTRACT

A method of producing collagen in a plant and plants producing collagen are provided. The method is effected by expressing in the plant at least one type of a collagen alpha chain in a manner enabling accumulation of the collagen alpha chain in a subcellular compartment devoid of endogenous P4H activity, thereby producing the collagen in the plant.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/541,880 filed on Jul. 5, 2012, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/730,071 filed on Mar. 29, 2007, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,455,717, which is a continuation-in-part (CIP) of PCT Patent Application No. PCT/IL2005/001045 filed on Sep. 28, 2005, which claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/613,719 filed on Sep. 29, 2004. The contents of the above applications are all incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein in their entirety.

SEQUENCE LISTING STATEMENT

The ASCII file, entitled 56755SequenceListing.txt, created on 2013, 2 Jul., comprising 142,499 bytes, submitted concurrently with the filing of this application is incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD AND BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to collagen producing plants and methods of generating and using same. More particularly, the present invention relates to a novel approach for generating plants capable of producing high levels of hydroxylated collagen chains which are capable of forming native triple helix type I collagen fibers.

Collagens are the main structural proteins responsible for the structural integrity of vertebrates and many other multicellular organisms. Type I collagen represents the prototypical fibrillar collagen and is the major collagen type in most tissues.

Type I collagen is the predominant collagen component of bone and tendon and is found in large amounts in skin, aorta, and lung. Type I collagen fibers provide great tensile strength and limited extensibility. The most abundant molecular form of type I collagen is a heterotrimer composed of two different alpha chains [alpha 1(I)]₂ and alpha 2(I) (Inkinen, 2003). All fibrillar collagen molecules contain three polypeptide chains constructed from a repeating Gly-X-Y triplet, where X and Y can be any amino acid but are frequently the imino acids proline and hydroxyproline.

Fibril forming collagens are synthesized as precursor procollagens containing globular N- and C-terminal extension propeptides. The biosynthesis of procollagen is a complex process involving a number of different post-translational modifications including proline and lysine hydroxylation, N-linked and O-linked glycosylation and both intra- and inter-chain disulphide-bond formation. The enzymes carrying out these modifications act in a coordinated fashion to ensure the folding and assembly of a correctly aligned and thermally stable triple-helical molecule.

Each procollagen molecule assembles within the rough endoplasmic reticulum from the three constituent polypeptide chains. As the polypeptide chain is co-translationally translocated across the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, hydroxylation of proline and lysine residues occurs within the Gly-X-Y repeat region. Once the polypeptide chain is fully translocated into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum the C-propeptide folds. Three pro-alpha chains then associate via their C-propeptides to form a trimeric molecule allowing the Gly-X-Y repeat region to form a nucleation point at its C-terminal end, ensuring correct alignment of the chains. The Gly-X-Y region then folds in a C-to-N direction to form a triple helix.

The temporal relationship between polypeptide chain modification and triple-helix formation is crucial as hydroxylation of proline residues is required to ensure stability of the triple helix at body temperature, once formed, the triple helix no longer serves as a substrate for the hydroxylation enzyme. The C-propeptides (and to a lesser extent the N-propeptides) keep the procollagen soluble during its passage through the cell (Bulleid et al., 2000). Following or during secretion of procollagen molecules into the extracellular matrix, propeptides are removed by procollagen N- and C-proteinases, thereby triggering spontaneous self-assembly of collagen molecules into fibrils (Hulmes, 2002). Removal of the propeptides by procollagen N- and C-proteinases lowers the solubility of procollagen by >10000-fold and is necessary and sufficient to initiate the self-assembly of collagen into fibers. Crucial to this assembly process are short non triple-helical peptides called telopeptides at the ends of the triple-helical domain, which ensure correct registration of the collagen molecules within the fibril structure and lower the critical concentration for self-assembly (Bulleid et al., 2000). In nature, the stability of the triple-helical structure of collagen requires the hydroxylation of prolines by the enzyme prolyl-4-hydroxylase (P4H) to form residues of hydroxyproline within a collagen chain.

Plants expressing collagen chains are known in the art, see for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,617,431 and (Merle et al., 2002, Ruggiero et al., 2000). Although plants are capable of synthesizing hydroxyproline-containing proteins the prolyl hydroxylase that is responsible for synthesis of hydroxyproline in plant cells exhibits relatively loose substrate sequence specificity as compared with mammalian P4H and thus, production of collagen containing hydroxyproline only in the Y position of Gly-X-Y triplets requires plant co-expression of collagen and P4H genes (Olsen et al, 2003).

An attempt to produce human collagens that rely on the hydroxylation machinery naturally present in plants resulted in collagen that is poor in proline hydroxylation (Merle et al., 2002). Such collagen melts or loses its triple helical structure at temperatures below 30° C. Co-expression of collagen and prolyl-hydroxylase results with stable hydroxylated collagen that is biologically relevant for applications at body temperatures (Merle et al., 2002).

Lysyl hydroxylase (LH,EC 1.14.11.4), galactosyltransferase (EC 2.4.1.50) and glucosyltransferase (EC 2.4.1.66) are enzymes involved in posttranslational modifications of collagens. They sequentially modify lysyl residues in specific positions to hydroxylysyl, galactosylhydroxylysyl and glucosylgalactosyl hydroxylysyl residues. These structures are unique to collagens and essential for their functional activity (Wang et al, 2002). A single human enzyme, Lysyl hydroxylase 3 (LH3) can catalyze all three consecutive steps in hydroxylysine linked carbohydrate formation (Wang et al, 2002).

Hydroxylysins of a human collagen expressed in tobacco form less than 2% of the hydroxylysins found in a bovine collagen (0.04% of residues/1.88% of residues). This suggests that plant endogenic Lysyl hydroxylase is unable to sufficiently hydroxylate lysines in collagen.

While reducing the present invention to practice, the present inventors uncovered that efficient hydroxylation of collagen chains relies upon sequestering of the collagen chain along with an enzyme capable of correctly modifying this polypeptide.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

According to one aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of producing collagen in a plant or an isolated plant cell comprising expressing in the plant or the isolated plant cell at least one type of a collagen alpha chain and exogenous P4H in a manner enabling accumulation of the at least one type of the collagen alpha chain and the exogenous P4H in a subcellular compartment devoid of endogenous P4H activity, thereby producing the collagen in the plant.

According to an additional aspect of the present invention there is provided According to further features in preferred embodiments of the invention described below, the method further comprises expressing exogenous LH3 in the subcellular compartment devoid of endogenous P4H activity.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the at least one type of the collagen alpha chain includes a signal peptide for targeting to an apoplast or a vacuole.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the at least one type of the collagen alpha chain is devoid of an ER targeting or retention sequence.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the at least one type of the collagen alpha chain is expressed in a DNA-containing organelle of the plant.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the exogenous P4H includes a signal peptide for targeting to an apoplast or a vacuole.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the exogenous P4H is devoid of an ER targeting or retention sequence.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the exogenous P4H is expressed in a DNA-containing organelle of the plant.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the at least one type of the collagen alpha chain is alpha 1 chain.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the at least one type of the collagen alpha chain is alpha 2 chain.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the at least one type of the collagen alpha chain includes a C-terminus and/or an N-terminus propeptide.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the plant is selected from the group consisting of Tobacco, Maize, Alfalfa, Rice, Potato, Soybean, Tomato, Wheat, Barley, Canola and Cotton.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the at least one type of the collagen alpha chain or the exogenous P4H are expressed in only a portion of the plant.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the portion of the plant is leaves, seeds, roots, tubers or stems.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the exogenous P4H is capable of specifically hydroxylating the Y position of Gly-X-Y triplets of the at least one type of the collagen alpha chain.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the exogenous P4H is human P4H.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the plant is subjected to a stress condition.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the stress condition is selected from the group consisting of drought, salinity, injury, cold and spraying with stress inducing compounds.

According to another aspect of the present invention there is provided a genetically modified plant or isolated plant cell capable of accumulating a collagen alpha chain having a hydroxylation pattern identical to that produced when the collagen alpha chain is expressed in human cells.

According to yet another aspect of the present invention there is provided a genetically modified plant or isolated plant cell capable of accumulating a collagen alpha chain in a subcellular compartment devoid of endogenous P4H activity.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the genetically modified plant further comprises an exogenous P4H.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the at least one type of the collagen alpha chain includes a signal peptide for targeting to an apoplast or a vacuole.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the at least one type of the collagen alpha chain is devoid of an ER targeting or retention sequence.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the at least one type of the collagen alpha chain is expressed in a DNA-containing organelle of the plant.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the exogenous P4H includes a signal peptide for targeting to an apoplast or a vacuole.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the exogenous P4H is devoid of an ER targeting or retention sequence.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the exogenous P4H is expressed in a DNA-containing organelle of the plant.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the collagen alpha chain is alpha 1 chain.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the collagen alpha chain is alpha 2 chain.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the collagen alpha chain includes a C-terminus and/or an N-terminus propeptide.

According to still another aspect of the present invention there is provided a plant system comprising a first genetically modified plant capable of accumulating a collagen alpha 1 chain and a second genetically modified plant capable of accumulating a collagen alpha 2 chain.

According to yet another aspect of the present invention there is provided a plant system comprising a first genetically modified plant capable of accumulating a collagen alpha 1 chain and a collagen alpha 2 chain and a second genetically modified plant capable of accumulating P4H.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments at least one of the first genetically modified plant and the second genetically modified plant further comprises exogenous P4H.

According to yet another aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of producing fibrillar collagen comprising: (a) expressing in a first plant a collagen alpha 1 chain; (b) expressing in a second plant a collagen alpha 2 chain, wherein expression in the first plant and the second plant the is configured such that the collagen alpha 1 chain and the collagen alpha 2 chain are each capable of accumulating in a subcellular compartment devoid of endogenous P4H activity; and (c) crossing the first plant and the second plant and selecting progeny expressing the collagen alpha 1 chain and the collagen alpha 2 chain thereby producing fibrillar collagen.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the method further comprises expressing an exogenous P4H in each of the first plant and the second plant.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments each of the collagen alpha 1 chain and the collagen alpha 2 chain includes a signal peptide for targeting to an apoplast or a vacuole.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments each of the collagen alpha 1 chain and the collagen alpha 2 chain is devoid of an ER targeting or retention sequence.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments steps (a) and (b) are effected via expression in a DNA-containing organelle of the plant.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the exogenous P4H includes a signal peptide for targeting to an apoplast or a vacuole.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the exogenous P4H is devoid of an ER targeting or retention sequence.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the exogenous P4H is expressed in a DNA-containing organelle of the plant.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments each of the collagen alpha 1 chain and the collagen alpha 2 chain includes a C-terminus and/or an N-terminus propeptide.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the exogenous P4H is capable of specifically hydroxylating the Y position of Gly-X-Y triplets of the at least one type of the collagen alpha chain.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the exogenous P4H is human P4H.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the first plant and the second plant are subjected to a stress condition.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the stress condition is selected from the group consisting of drought, salinity, injury, heavy metal toxicity and cold stress.

According to yet another aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of producing fibrillar collagen comprising: (a) expressing in a first plant a collagen alpha 1 chain and a collagen alpha 2 chain, wherein expression in the first plant is configured such that the collagen alpha 1 chain and the collagen alpha 2 chain are each capable of accumulating in a subcellular compartment devoid of endogenous P4H activity; (b) expressing in a second plant an exogenous P4H capable of accumulating in the subcellular compartment devoid of endogenous P4H activity; and (c) crossing the first plant and the second plant and selecting progeny expressing the collagen alpha 1 chain, the collagen alpha 2 chain and the P4H thereby producing fibrillar collagen.

According to yet another aspect of the present invention there is provided a nucleic acid construct comprising a polynucleotide encoding a human P4H positioned under the transcriptional control of a promoter functional in plant cells.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the promoter is selected from the group consisting of the CaMV 35S promoter, the Ubiquitin promoter, the rbcS promoter and the SVBV promoter.

According to yet another aspect of the present invention there is provided a genetically modified plant or isolated plant cell being capable of expressing collagen alpha 1 chain, collagen alpha 2 chain, P4H, LH3 and protease C and/or protease N.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the collagen alpha 1 chain and the collagen alpha 2 chain are each capable of accumulating in a subcellular compartment devoid of endogenous plant P4H activity.

According to yet another aspect of the present invention there is provided a genetically modified plant or isolated plant cell being capable of accumulating collagen having a temperature stability characteristic identical to that of mammalian collagen.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the collagen is type I collagen.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the mammalian collagen is human collagen.

According to yet another aspect of the present invention there is provided a collagen-encoding sequence optimized for expression in a plant.

According to still further features in the described preferred embodiments the collagen encoding sequence is as set forth by SEQ ID NO:1.

The present invention successfully addresses the shortcomings of the presently known configurations by providing a plant capable of expressing correctly hydroxylated collagen chains which are capable of assembling into collagen having properties similar to that of human collagen.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. In case of conflict, the patent specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention is herein described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings. With specific reference now to the drawings in detail, it is stressed that the particulars shown are by way of example and for purposes of illustrative discussion of the preferred embodiments of the present invention only, and are presented in the cause of providing what is believed to be the most useful and readily understood description of the principles and conceptual aspects of the invention. In this regard, no attempt is made to show structural details of the invention in more detail than is necessary for a fundamental understanding of the invention, the description taken with the drawings making apparent to those skilled in the art how the several forms of the invention may be embodied in practice.

In the drawings:

FIGS. 1 a-d illustrate construction of various expression cassettes and vectors used to transform test plants. All of the coding sequences synthesized as a part of the present study were optimized for expression in tobacco. FIG. 1 a shows a cloning scheme of type I collagen alpha I chain or type II collagen alpha 2 chain into a plant expression vector in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 1 b shows a cloning scheme of the enzyme prolyl-4-hydroxylase (P4H) into a plant expression vector in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 1 c shows a cloning scheme proteinase C or proteinase N into a plant expression vector in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 1 d shows a cloning scheme of Lysyl hydroxylase 3 (LH3) into a plant expression vector in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention. A multiple cloning site set forth in SEQ ID NO: 29 is shown at the bottom of each panel.

FIG. 2 illustrates various co-transformations approaches. Each expression cassette is represented by the short name of the coding sequence. The coding sequences are specified in table 1. Each co-transformation was performed by two pBINPLUS binary vectors. Each rectangle represents a single pBINPLUS vector carrying one, two or three expression cassettes. Promoter and terminators are specified in Example 1.

FIG. 3 is a multiplex PCR screening of transformants showing plants that are positive for Collagen alpha 1 (324 bp fragment) or Collagen alpha 2 (537 bp fragment) or both.

FIG. 4 is western blot analysis of transgenic plants generated by co-transformations 2, 3 and 4. Total soluble proteins were extracted from tobacco co-transformants #2, #3 and #4 and tested with anti-Collagen I antibody (#AB745 from Chemicon Inc.). Size markers were #SM0671 from Fermentas Inc. W.T. is a wild type tobacco. Positive collagen bands are visible in plants that are PCR positive for collagen typel alpha 1 or alpha 2 or both. Positive control band of 500 ng collagen type I from human placenta (#CC050 from Chemicon Inc., extracted from human placenta by pepsin digestion) represents about 0.3% of the total soluble proteins (about 150 μg) in the samples from the transgenic plants. The larger band at about 140 kDa in the human collagen sample is a procollagen with it's C-propeptide as detected by anti carboxy-terminal pro-peptide of collagen type I antibody (#MAB 1913 from Chemicon Inc.). The smaller band at about 120 kDa in the human collagen sample is a collagen without propeptides. Due to their unusual composition proline rich proteins (including collagen)s consistently migrate on polyacrylamid gels as bands with molecular mass higher than expected. Therefore the collagen chains without propeptides with a molecular weight of about 95 kDa migrate as a band of about 120 kDa.

FIG. 5 is a western blot analysis of transgenic plant generated by co-transformation #8 (carrying appoplast signals translationally fused to the collagen chains). Total soluble proteins were extracted from transgenic tobacco leaves and tested with anti-Collagen I antibody (#AB745 from Chemicon Inc.) Positive collagen alpha 2 band is visible in plant 8-141. Collagen type I from human placenta (#CC050 from Chemicon Inc.) served as control.

FIGS. 6 a-b illustrate collagen triple helix assembly and thermal stability as qualified by heat treatment and Trypsin or Pepsin digestion. In FIG. 6 a-total soluble protein from tobacco 2-9 (expressing only col alpha1 and no P4H) and 3-5 (expressing both col alpha 1+2 and human P4H alpha and beta subunits) were subjected to heat treatment (15 minutes in 38° C. or 43° C.) followed by Trypsin digestion (20 minutes in R.T.) and tested with anti-Collagen I antibody in a Western blot procedure. Positive controls were samples of 500 ng human collagen I+total soluble proteins of w.t. tobacco. In FIG. 6 b—total soluble proteins were extracted from transgenic tobacco 13-6 (expressing collagen 1 alpha 1 and alpha 2 chains—pointed by arrows, human P4H alpha and beta subunits and human LH3) and subjected to heat treatment (20 minutes in 33° C., 38° C. or 42° C.), immediately cooled on ice to prevent reassembly of triple helix and incubated with pepsin for 30 minutes in room temperature (about 22° C.) followed by testing with anti-Collagen I antibody ((#AB745 from Chemicon Inc.) in a standard Western blot procedure. Positive control was sample of ˜50 ng human collagen I (#CC050 from Chemicon Inc., extracted from human placenta by pepsin digestion) which was added to total soluble proteins extracted from w.t. tobacco.

FIG. 7 illustrates Northern blot analysis conducted on wild type tobacco. Blots were probed with tobacco P4H cDNA.

FIG. 8 is a western blot analysis of transgenic plants generated by co-transformations 2, 3 and 13. Total soluble protein was extracted from tobacco co-transformants and tested with anti human P4H alpha and beta and anti-Collagen I antibodies.

FIG. 9 is a western blot analysis of (lane 1) cross breeding vacuolar targeted plants A(2-300 ♀+20-279♂′) grown under normal light regimen; and 13-652 vacuolar targeted plants grown for 8 days in the dark. All plants express exogenous col1, col2, P4H α and β as well as LH3 (PCR validated).

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is of plants expressing and accumulating collagen which can be used to produce collagen and collagen fibers which display characteristics of mammalian collagen.

The principles and operation of the present invention may be better understood with reference to the drawings and accompanying descriptions.

Before explaining at least one embodiment of the invention in detail, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its application to the details set forth in the following description or exemplified by the Examples. The invention is capable of other embodiments or of being practiced or carried out in various ways. Also, it is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology employed herein is for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting.

Collagen producing plants are known in the art. Although such plants can be used to produce collagen chains as well as collagen, such chains are incorrectly hydroxylated and thus self-assembly thereof, whether in planta or not, leads to collagen which is inherently unstable.

While reducing the present invention to practice, the present inventors have devised a plant expression approach which ensures correct hydroxylation of collagen chains and thus enables in-planta production of collagen which closely mimics the characteristics (e.g. temperature stability) of human type I collagen.

Thus, according to one aspect of the present invention there is provided a genetically modified plant which is capable of expressing at least one type of a collagen alpha chain and accumulating it in a subcellular compartment which is devoid of endogenous P4H activity.

As used herein, the phrase “genetically modified plant” refers to any lower (e.g. moss) or higher (vascular) plant or a tissue or an isolated cell thereof (e.g., of a cell suspension) which is stably or transiently transformed with an exogenous polynucleotide sequence. Examples of plants include Tobacco, Maize, Alfalfa, Rice, Potato, Soybean, Tomato, Wheat, Barley, Canola, Cotton, Carrot as well as lower plants such as moss.

As used herein, the phrase “collagen chain” refers to a collagen subunit such as the alpha 1 or 2 chains of collagen fibers, preferably type I fibers. As used herein, the phrase “collagen” refers to an assembled collagen trimer, which in the case of type I collagen includes two alpha 1 chains and one alpha 2 chain. A collagen fiber is collagen which is devoid of terminal propeptides C and N.

As is used herein, the phrase “subcellular compartment devoid of endogenous P4H activity” refers to any compartmentalized region of the cell which does not include plant P4H or an enzyme having plant-like P4H activity. Examples of such subcellular compartments include the vacuole, apoplast and cytoplasm as well as organelles such as the chloroplast, mitochondria and the like.

Any type of collagen chain can be expressed by the genetically modified plant of the present invention. Examples include Fibril-forming collagens (types I, II, III, V, and XI), networks forming collagens (types IV, VIII, and X), collagens associated with fibril surfaces (types IX, XII, and XIV), collagens which occur as transmembrane proteins (types XIII and XVII), or form 11-nm periodic beaded filaments (type VI). For further description please see Hulmes, 2002.

Preferably, the collagen chain expressed is an alpha 1 and/or 2 chain of type I collagen. The expressed collagen alpha chain can be encoded by any polynucleotide sequences derived from any mammal. Preferably, the sequences encoding collagen alpha chains are human and are set forth by SEQ ID NOs: 1 and 4.

Typically, alpha collagen chains expressed in plants may or may not include their terminal propeptides (i.e. propeptide C and propeptide N).

Ruggiero et al. (2000) note that processing of procollagen by plant proteolytic activity is different then normal processing in human and that propeptide C is removed by plant proteolytic activity although the cleavage site is unknown. Cleavage of the C propeptide may take place on a procollagen peptide before the assembly of trimmer (association of three C-Propeptides is essential for initiating the assembly of trimmers).

N-propeptide cleavage by plant proteolytic activity takes place in mature plants but not in plantlets. Such cleavage removes 2 amino acids from the N telopeptide (2 out of 17).

The C-propeptides (and to a lesser extent the N-propeptides) maintain the procollagen soluble during its passage through the animal cell (Bulleid et al., 2000) and are expected to have a similar effect in the plant cell. Following or during secretion of procollagen molecules into the extracellular matrix, propeptides are removed by procollagen N- and C-proteinases, thereby triggering spontaneous self-assembly of collagen molecules into fibrils (Hulmes, 2002). Removal of the propeptides by procollagen N- and C-proteinases lowers the solubility of procollagen by >10000-fold and is necessary and sufficient to initiate the self-assembly of collagen into fibers. Crucial to this assembly process are short non triple-helical peptides called telopeptides at the ends of the triple-helical domain, which ensure correct registration of the collagen molecules within the fibril structure and lower the critical concentration for self-assembly (Bulleid et al., 2000). Prior art describe the use of pepsin to cleave the propeptides during production of collagen (Bulleid et al 2000). However pepsin damages the telopeptides and as a result, pepsin-extracted collagen is unable to form ordered fibrillar structures (Bulleid et al 2000).

Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) that form the beta subunit of human P4H was shown to bind to the C-propeptide prior to trimmer assembly thereby also acting as a molecular chaperone during chain assembly (Ruggiero et al, 2000). The use of human Procollagen I N-proteinase and Procollagen C-proteinase expressed in a different plants may generate collagen that is more similar to the native human collagen and can form ordered fibrillar structures.

In a case where N or C propeptides or both are included in the expressed collagen chain, the genetically modified plant of the present invention can also express the respective protease (i.e. C or N or both). Polynucleotide sequences encoding such proteases are exemplified by SEQ ID NOs: 18 (protease C) and 20 (Protease N). Such proteases can be expressed such that they are accumulated in the same subcellular compartment as the collagen chain.

Accumulation of the expressed collagen chain in a subcellular compartment devoid of endogenous P4H activity can be effected via any one of several approaches.

For example, the expressed collagen chain can include a signal sequence for targeting the expressed protein to a subcellular compartment such as the apoplast or an organelle (e.g. chloroplast). Examples of suitable signal sequences include the chloroplast transit peptide (included in Swiss-Prot entry P07689, amino acids 1-57) and the Mitochondrion transit peptide (included in Swiss-Prot entry P46643, amino acids 1-28). The Examples section which follows provides additional examples of suitable signal sequences as well as guidelines for employing such signal sequences in expression of collagen chains in plant cells.

Alternatively, the sequence of the collagen chain can be modified in a way which alters the cellular localization of collagen when expressed in plants.

As is mentioned hereinabove, the ER of plants includes a P4H which is incapable of correctly hydroxylating collagen chains. Collagen alpha chains natively include an ER targeting sequence which directs expressed collagen into the ER where it is post-translationally modified (including incorrect hydroxylation). Thus, removal of the ER targeting sequence will lead to cytoplasmic accumulation of collagen chains which are devoid of post translational modification including any hydroxylations.

Example 1 of the Examples section which follows describes generation of collagen sequences which are devoid of ER sequences.

Still alternatively, collagen chains can be expressed and accumulated in a DNA containing organelle such as the chloroplast or mitochondria. Further description of chloroplast expression is provided hereinbelow.

As is mentioned hereinabove, hydroxylation of alpha chains is required for assembly of a stable type I collagen. Since alpha chains expressed by the genetically modified plant of the present invention accumulate in a compartment devoid of endogenous P4H activity, such chains must be isolated from the plant, plant tissue or cell and in-vitro hydroxylated. Such hydroxylation can be achieved by the method described by Turpeenniemi-Hujanen and Myllyla (Concomitant hydroxylation of proline and lysine residues in collagen using purified enzymes in vitro. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1984 Jul. 16; 800(1):59-65).

Although such in-vitro hydroxylation can lead to correctly hydroxylated collagen chains, it can be difficult and costly to achieve.

To overcome the limitations of in-vitro hydroxylation, the genetically modified plant of the present invention preferably also co-expresses P4H which is capable of correctly hydroxylating the collagen alpha chain(s) [i.e. hydroxylating only the proline (Y) position of the Gly-X-Y triplets]. P4H is an enzyme composed of two subunits, alpha and beta. Both are needed to form an active enzyme while the Beta subunit also posses a chaperon function.

The P4H expressed by the genetically modified plant of the present invention is preferably a human P4H which is encoded by, for example, SEQ ID's NO:12 and 14. In addition, P4H mutants which exhibit enhanced substrate specificity, or P4H homologues can also be used.

A suitable P4H homologue is exemplified by an Arabidopsis oxidoreductase identified by NCBI accession NP_(—)179363. Pairwise alignment of this protein sequence and a human P4H alpha subunit conducted by the present inventors revealed the highest homology between functional domains of any known P4H homologs of plants.

Since P4H needs to co-accumulate with the expressed collagen chain, the coding sequence thereof is preferably modified accordingly (addition of signal sequences, deletions which may prevent ER targeting etc).

In mammalian cells, collagen is also modified by Lysyl hydroxylase, galactosyltransferase and glucosyltransferase. These enzymes sequentially modify lysyl residues in specific positions to hydroxylysyl, galactosylhydroxylysyl and glucosylgalactosyl hydroxylysyl residues. A single human enzyme, Lysyl hydroxylase 3 (LH3) can catalyze all three consecutive steps in hydroxylysine linked carbohydrate formation.

Thus, the genetically modified plant of the present invention preferably also expresses mammalian LH3. An LH3 encoding sequence such as that set forth by SEQ ID NO: 22 can be used for such purposes.

The collagen chain(s) and modifying enzymes described above can be expressed from a stably integrated or a transiently expressed nucleic acid construct which includes polynucleotide sequences encoding the alpha chains and/or modifying enzymes (e.g. P4H and LH3) positioned under the transcriptional control of plant functional promoters. Such a nucleic acid construct (which is also termed herein as an expression construct) can be configured for expression throughout the whole plant, defined plant tissues or defined plant cells, or at define developmental stages of the plant. Such a construct may also include selection markers (e.g. antibiotic resistance), enhancer elements and an origin of replication for bacterial replication.

It will be appreciated that constructs including two expressible inserts (e.g. two alpha chain types, or an alpha chain and P4H) preferably include an individual promoter for each insert, or alternatively such constructs can express a single transcript chimera including both insert sequences from a single promoter. In such a case, the chimeric transcript includes an IRES sequence between the two insert sequences such that the downstream insert can be translated therefrom.

Numerous plant functional expression promoters and enhancers which can be either tissue specific, developmentally specific, constitutive or inducible can be utilized by the constructs of the present invention, some examples are provided hereinunder.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims section that follows the phrase “plant promoter” or “promoter” includes a promoter which can direct gene expression in plant cells (including DNA containing organelles). Such a promoter can be derived from a plant, bacterial, viral, fungal or animal origin. Such a promoter can be constitutive, i.e., capable of directing high level of gene expression in a plurality of plant tissues, tissue specific, i.e., capable of directing gene expression in a particular plant tissue or tissues, inducible, i.e., capable of directing gene expression under a stimulus, or chimeric, i.e., formed of portions of at least two different promoters. Thus, the plant promoter employed can be a constitutive promoter, a tissue specific promoter, an inducible promoter or a chimeric promoter.

Examples of constitutive plant promoters include, without being limited to, CaMV35S and CaMV19S promoters, FMV34S promoter, sugarcane bacilliform badnavirus promoter, CsVMV promoter, Arabidopsis ACT2/ACT8 actin promoter, Arabidopsis ubiquitin UBQ1 promoter, barley leaf thionin BTH6 promoter, and rice actin promoter.

Examples of tissue specific promoters include, without being limited to, bean phaseolin storage protein promoter, DLEC promoter, PHS promoter, zein storage protein promoter, conglutin gamma promoter from soybean, AT2S 1 gene promoter, ACT11 actin promoter from Arabidopsis, napA promoter from Brassica napus and potato patatin gene promoter.

The inducible promoter is a promoter induced by a specific stimuli such as stress conditions comprising, for example, light, temperature, chemicals, drought, high salinity, osmotic shock, oxidant conditions or in case of pathogenicity and include, without being limited to, the light-inducible promoter derived from the pea rbcS gene, the promoter from the alfalfa rbcS gene, the promoters DRE, MYC and MYB active in drought; the promoters INT, INPS, prxEa, Ha hsp17.7G4 and RD21 active in high salinity and osmotic stress, and the promoters hsr203J and str246C active in pathogenic stress.

Preferably the promoter utilized by the present invention is a strong constitutive promoter such that over expression of the construct inserts is effected following plant transformation.

It will be appreciated that any of the construct types used in the present invention can be co-transformed into the same plant using same or different selection markers in each construct type. Alternatively the first construct type can be introduced into a first plant while the second construct type can be introduced into a second isogenic plant, following which the transgenic plants resultant therefrom can be crossed and the progeny selected for double transformants. Further self-crosses of such progeny can be employed to generate lines homozygous for both constructs.

There are various methods of introducing nucleic acid constructs into both monocotyledonous and dicotyledenous plants (Potrykus, I., Annu. Rev. Plant. Physiol., Plant. Mol. Biol. (1991) 42:205-225; Shimamoto et al., Nature (1989) 338:274-276). Such methods rely on either stable integration of the nucleic acid construct or a portion thereof into the genome of the plant, or on transient expression of the nucleic acid construct in which case these sequences are not inherited by a progeny of the plant.

In addition, several methods exist in which a nucleic acid construct can be directly introduced into the DNA of a DNA containing organelle such as a chloroplast.

There are two principle methods of effecting stable genomic integration of exogenous sequences such as those included within the nucleic acid constructs of the present invention into plant genomes:

(i) Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer: Klee et al. (1987) Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 38:467-486; Klee and Rogers in Cell Culture and Somatic Cell Genetics of Plants, Vol. 6, Molecular Biology of Plant Nuclear Genes, eds. Schell, J., and Vasil, L. K., Academic Publishers, San Diego, Calif. (1989) p. 2-25; Gatenby, in Plant Biotechnology, eds. Kung, S, and Arntzen, C. J., Butterworth Publishers, Boston, Mass. (1989) p. 93-112.

-   -   (ii) direct DNA uptake: Paszkowski et al., in Cell Culture and         Somatic Cell Genetics of Plants, Vol. 6, Molecular Biology of         Plant Nuclear Genes eds. Schell, J., and Vasil, L. K., Academic         Publishers, San Diego, Calif. (1989) p. 52-68; including methods         for direct uptake of DNA into protoplasts, Toriyama, K. et         al. (1988) Bio/Technology 6:1072-1074. DNA uptake induced by         brief electric shock of plant cells: Zhang et al. Plant Cell         Rep. (1988) 7:379-384. Fromm et al. Nature (1986) 319:791-793.         DNA injection into plant cells or tissues by particle         bombardment, Klein et al. Bio/Technology (1988) 6:559-563;         McCabe et al. Bio/Technology (1988) 6:923-926; Sanford, Physiol.         Plant. (1990) 79:206-209; by the use of micropipette systems:         Neuhaus et al., Theor. Appl. Genet. (1987) 75:30-36; Neuhaus and         Spangenberg, Physiol. Plant. (1990) 79:213-217; or by the direct         incubation of DNA with germinating pollen, DeWet et al. in         Experimental Manipulation of Ovule Tissue, eds. Chapman, G. P.         and Mantell, S. H. and Daniels, W. Longman, London, (1985) p.         197-209; and Ohta, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1986) 83:715-719.

The Agrobacterium system includes the use of plasmid vectors that contain defined DNA segments that integrate into the plant genomic DNA. Methods of inoculation of the plant tissue vary depending upon the plant species and the Agrobacterium delivery system. A widely used approach is the leaf disc procedure which can be performed with any tissue explant that provides a good source for initiation of whole plant differentiation. Horsch et al. in Plant Molecular Biology Manual A5, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (1988) p. 1-9. A supplementary approach employs the Agrobacterium delivery system in combination with vacuum infiltration. The Agrobacterium system is especially viable in the creation of transgenic dicotyledenous plants.

There are various methods of direct DNA transfer into plant cells. In electroporation, protoplasts are briefly exposed to a strong electric field. In microinjection, the DNA is mechanically injected directly into the cells using very small micropipettes. In microparticle bombardment, the DNA is adsorbed on microprojectiles such as magnesium sulfate crystals, tungsten particles or gold particles, and the microprojectiles are physically accelerated into cells or plant tissues.

Following transformation plant propagation is exercised. The most common method of plant propagation is by seed. Regeneration by seed propagation, however, has the deficiency that due to heterozygosity there is a lack of uniformity in the crop, since seeds are produced by plants according to the genetic variances governed by Mendelian rules. Basically, each seed is genetically different and each will grow with its own specific traits. Therefore, it is preferred that the transformed plant be produced such that the regenerated plant has the identical traits and characteristics of the parent transgenic plant. Therefore, it is preferred that the transformed plant be regenerated by micropropagation which provides a rapid, consistent reproduction of the transformed plants.

Transient expression methods which can be utilized for transiently expressing the isolated nucleic acid included within the nucleic acid construct of the present invention include, but are not limited to, microinjection and bombardment as described above but under conditions which favor transient expression, and viral mediated expression wherein a packaged or unpackaged recombinant virus vector including the nucleic acid construct is utilized to infect plant tissues or cells such that a propagating recombinant virus established therein expresses the non-viral nucleic acid sequence.

Viruses that have been shown to be useful for the transformation of plant hosts include CaMV, TMV and BV. Transformation of plants using plant viruses is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,855,237 (BGV), EP-A 67,553 (TMV), Japanese Published Application No. 63-14693 (TMV), EPA 194,809 (BV), EPA 278,667 (BV); and Gluzman, Y. et al., Communications in Molecular Biology: Viral Vectors, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York, pp. 172-189 (1988). Pseudovirus particles for use in expressing foreign DNA in many hosts, including plants, is described in WO 87/06261.

Construction of plant RNA viruses for the introduction and expression of non-viral exogenous nucleic acid sequences in plants is demonstrated by the above references as well as by Dawson, W. O. et al., Virology (1989) 172:285-292; Takamatsu et al. EMBO J. (1987) 6:307-311; French et al. Science (1986) 231:1294-1297; and Takamatsu et al. FEBS Letters (1990) 269:73-76.

When the virus is a DNA virus, the constructions can be made to the virus itself. Alternatively, the virus can first be cloned into a bacterial plasmid for ease of constructing the desired viral vector with the foreign DNA. The virus can then be excised from the plasmid. If the virus is a DNA virus, a bacterial origin of replication can be attached to the viral DNA, which is then replicated by the bacteria. Transcription and translation of this DNA will produce the coat protein which will encapsidate the viral DNA. If the virus is an RNA virus, the virus is generally cloned as a cDNA and inserted into a plasmid. The plasmid is then used to make all of the constructions. The RNA virus is then produced by transcribing the viral sequence of the plasmid and translation of the viral genes to produce the coat protein(s) which encapsidate the viral RNA.

Construction of plant RNA viruses for the introduction and expression in plants of non-viral exogenous nucleic acid sequences such as those included in the construct of the present invention is demonstrated by the above references as well as in U.S. Pat. No. 5,316,931.

In one embodiment, a plant viral nucleic acid is provided in which the native coat protein coding sequence has been deleted from a viral nucleic acid, a non-native plant viral coat protein coding sequence and a non-native promoter, preferably the subgenomic promoter of the non-native coat protein coding sequence, capable of expression in the plant host, packaging of the recombinant plant viral nucleic acid, and ensuring a systemic infection of the host by the recombinant plant viral nucleic acid, has been inserted. Alternatively, the coat protein gene may be inactivated by insertion of the non-native nucleic acid sequence within it, such that a protein is produced. The recombinant plant viral nucleic acid may contain one or more additional non-native subgenomic promoters. Each non-native subgenomic promoter is capable of transcribing or expressing adjacent genes or nucleic acid sequences in the plant host and incapable of recombination with each other and with native subgenomic promoters. Non-native (foreign) nucleic acid sequences may be inserted adjacent the native plant viral subgenomic promoter or the native and a non-native plant viral subgenomic promoters if more than one nucleic acid sequence is included. The non-native nucleic acid sequences are transcribed or expressed in the host plant under control of the subgenomic promoter to produce the desired products.

In a second embodiment, a recombinant plant viral nucleic acid is provided as in the first embodiment except that the native coat protein coding sequence is placed adjacent one of the non-native coat protein subgenomic promoters instead of a non-native coat protein coding sequence.

In a third embodiment, a recombinant plant viral nucleic acid is provided in which the native coat protein gene is adjacent its subgenomic promoter and one or more non-native subgenomic promoters have been inserted into the viral nucleic acid. The inserted non-native subgenomic promoters are capable of transcribing or expressing adjacent genes in a plant host and are incapable of recombination with each other and with native subgenomic promoters. Non-native nucleic acid sequences may be inserted adjacent the non-native subgenomic plant viral promoters such that said sequences are transcribed or expressed in the host plant under control of the subgenomic promoters to produce the desired product.

In a fourth embodiment, a recombinant plant viral nucleic acid is provided as in the third embodiment except that the native coat protein coding sequence is replaced by a non-native coat protein coding sequence.

The viral vectors are encapsidated by the coat proteins encoded by the recombinant plant viral nucleic acid to produce a recombinant plant virus. The recombinant plant viral nucleic acid or recombinant plant virus is used to infect appropriate host plants. The recombinant plant viral nucleic acid is capable of replication in the host, systemic spread in the host, and transcription or expression of foreign gene(s) (isolated nucleic acid) in the host to produce the desired protein.

A technique for introducing exogenous nucleic acid sequences to the genome of the chloroplasts is known. This technique involves the following procedures. First, plant cells are chemically treated so as to reduce the number of chloroplasts per cell to about one. Then, the exogenous nucleic acid is introduced via particle bombardment into the cells with the aim of introducing at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule into the chloroplasts. The exogenous nucleic acid is selected such that it is integratable into the chloroplast's genome via homologous recombination which is readily effected by enzymes inherent to the chloroplast. To this end, the exogenous nucleic acid includes, in addition to a gene of interest, at least one nucleic acid stretch which is derived from the chloroplast's genome. In addition, the exogenous nucleic acid includes a selectable marker, which serves by sequential selection procedures to ascertain that all or substantially all of the copies of the chloroplast genomes following such selection will include the exogenous nucleic acid. Further details relating to this technique are found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,945,050; and 5,693,507 which are incorporated herein by reference. A polypeptide can thus be produced by the protein expression system of the chloroplast and become integrated into the chloroplast's inner membrane.

The above described transformation approaches can be used to produce collagen chains and/or modifying enzymes as well as assembled collagen (with or without propeptides) in any species of plant, or plant tissue or isolated plants cell derived therefrom.

Preferred plants are those which are capable of accumulating large amounts of collagen chains, collagen and/or the processing enzymes described herein. Such plants may also be selected according to their resistance to stress conditions and the ease at which expressed components or assembled collagen can be extracted. Examples of preferred plants include Tobacco, Maize, Alfalfa, Rice, Potato, Soybean, Tomato, Wheat, Barley, Canola and Cotton.

Collagen fibers are extensively used in the food and cosmetics industry. Thus, although collagen fiber components (alpha chains) and modifying enzymes expressed by plants find utility in industrial synthesis of collagen, complete collagen production in plants is preferred for its simplicity and cost effectiveness.

Several approaches can be used to generate type I collagen in plants. For example, collagen alpha 1 chain can be isolated from a plant expressing collagen alpha 1 and P4H (and optionally LH3) and mixed with a collagen alpha 2 chain which is isolated from a plant expressing collagen alpha 2 and P4H (and optionally LH3 and protease C and/or N). Since collagen alpha 1 chain self assembles into a triple helix by itself, it may be necessary to denature such a homo-trimer prior to mixing and renaturation with the collagen alpha 2 chain.

Preferably, a first plant expressing collagen alpha 1 and P4H (and optionally LH3 and protease C and/or N) can be crossed with a second (and preferably isogenic) plant which expresses collagen alpha 2 or alternatively, a first plant expressing both alpha chains can be crossed with a second plant expressing P4H and optionally LH3 and protease C and/or N.

It should be noted that although the above described plant breeding approaches utilize two individually transformed plants, approaches which utilize three or more individually transformed plants, each expressing one or two components can also be utilized.

One of ordinary skill in the art would be well aware of various plant breeding techniques and as s such no further description of such techniques is provided herein.

Although plant breeding approaches are preferred, it should be noted that a single plant expressing collagen alpha 1 and 2, P4H and LH3 (and optionally protease C and/or N) can be generated via several transformation events each designed for introducing one more expressible components into the cell. In such cases, stability of each transformation event can be verified using specific selection markers.

In any case, transformation and plant breeding approaches can be used to generate any plant, expressing any number of components. Presently preferred are plants which express collagen alpha 1 and 2 chains, P4H, LH3 and at least one protease (e.g. protease C and/or N). As is further described in the Examples section which follows, such plants accumulate collagen which exhibits stability at temperatures of up to 42° C.

Progeny resulting from breeding or alternatively multiple-transformed plants can be selected, by verifying presence of exogenous mRNA and/or polypeptides by using nucleic acid or protein probes (e.g. antibodies). The latter approach is preferred since it enables localization of the expressed polypeptide components (by for example, probing fractionated plants extracts) and thus also verifies a potential for correct processing and assembly. Examples of suitable probes are provided in the Examples section which follows

Once collagen-expressing progeny is identified, such plants are further cultivated under conditions which maximize expression of the collagen chains as well as the modifying enzymes.

Since free proline accumulation may facilitate over production of different proline-rich proteins including the collagen chains expressed by the genetically modified plants of the present invention, preferred cultivating conditions are those which increase free proline accumulation in the cultivated plant.

Free proline accumulates in a variety of plants in response to a wide range of environmental stresses including water deprivation, salinization, low temperature, high temperature, pathogen infection, heavy metal toxicity, anaerobiosis, nutrient deficiency, atmospheric pollution and UV—irradiation (Hare and Cress, 1997).

Free proline may also accumulate in response to treatment of the plant or soil with compounds such as ABA or stress inducing compounds such as copper salt, paraquate, salicylic acid and the like.

Thus, collagen-expressing progeny can be grown under different stress conditions (e.g. different concentrations of NaCl ranging from 50 mM up to 250 mM). In order to further enhance collagen production, the effect of various stress conditions on collagen expression will examined and optimized with respect to plant viability, biomass and collagen accumulation.

Plant tissues/cells are preferably harvested at maturity, and the collagen fibers are isolated using well know prior art extraction approaches, one such approach is detailed below.

Leaves of transgenic plants are ground to a powder under liquid nitrogen and the homogenate is extracted in 0.5 M acetic acid containing 0.2 M NaCl for 60 h at 4° C. Insoluble material is removed by centrifugation. The supernatant containing the recombinant collagen is salt-fractionated at 0.4 M and 0.7 M NaCl. The 0.7 M NaCl precipitate, containing the recombinant heterotrimeric collagen, is dissolved in and dialyzed against 0.1 M acetic acid and stored at −20° C. (following Ruggiero et al., 2000).

Additional objects, advantages, and novel features of the present invention will become apparent to one ordinarily skilled in the art upon examination of the following examples, which are not intended to be limiting. Additionally, each of the various embodiments and aspects of the present invention as delineated hereinabove and as claimed in the claims section below finds experimental support in the following examples.

EXAMPLES

Reference is now made to the following examples, which together with the above descriptions, illustrate the invention in a non limiting fashion.

Generally, the nomenclature used herein and the laboratory procedures utilized in the present invention include molecular, biochemical, microbiological and recombinant DNA techniques. Such techniques are thoroughly explained in the literature. See, for example, “Molecular Cloning: A laboratory Manual” Sambrook et al., (1989); “Current Protocols in Molecular Biology” Volumes I-III Ausubel, R. M., ed. (1994); Ausubel et al., “Current Protocols in Molecular Biology”, John Wiley and Sons, Baltimore, Md. (1989); Perbal, “A Practical Guide to Molecular Cloning”, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1988); Watson et al., “Recombinant DNA”, Scientific American Books, New York; Birren et al. (eds) “Genome Analysis: A Laboratory Manual Series”, Vols. 1-4, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, New York (1998); methodologies as set forth in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,666,828; 4,683,202; 4,801,531; 5,192,659 and 5,272,057; “Cell Biology: A Laboratory Handbook”, Volumes I-III Cellis, J. E., ed. (1994); “Current Protocols in Immunology” Volumes I-III Coligan J. E., ed. (1994); Stites et al. (eds), “Basic and Clinical Immunology” (8th Edition), Appleton & Lange, Norwalk, Conn. (1994); Mishell and Shiigi (eds), “Selected Methods in Cellular Immunology”, W. H. Freeman and Co., New York (1980); available immunoassays are extensively described in the patent and scientific literature, see, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,791,932; 3,839,153; 3,850,752; 3,850,578; 3,853,987; 3,867,517; 3,879,262; 3,901,654; 3,935,074; 3,984,533; 3,996,345; 4,034,074; 4,098,876; 4,879,219; 5,011,771 and 5,281,521; “Oligonucleotide Synthesis” Gait, M. J., ed. (1984); “Nucleic Acid Hybridization” Hames, B. D., and Higgins S. J., eds. (1985); “Transcription and Translation” Hames, B. D., and Higgins S. J., Eds. (1984); “Animal Cell Culture” Freshney, R. I., ed. (1986); “Immobilized Cells and Enzymes” IRL Press, (1986); “A Practical Guide to Molecular Cloning” Perbal, B., (1984) and “Methods in Enzymology” Vol. 1-317, Academic Press; “PCR Protocols: A Guide To Methods And Applications”, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990); Marshak et al., “Strategies for Protein Purification and Characterization—A Laboratory Course Manual” CSHL Press (1996); all of which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. Other general references are provided throughout this document. The procedures therein are believed to be well known in the art and are provided for the convenience of the reader. All the information contained therein is incorporated herein by reference.

Example 1 Constructs and Transformation Schemes

Constructions of expression cassettes and vectors used in this work are illustrated in FIG. 1 a-d. All of the coding sequences in this work were optimized for expression in tobacco and chemically synthesized with desired flanking regions (SEQ ID NOs: 1, 4, 7, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22). FIG. 1 a—the synthetic genes coding for Col1 and Col2 (SEQ ID's 1, 4) fused either to the vacuolar signal or to the apoplast signal (encoded by SEQ ID NO: 7) or without signals were cloned in expression cassettes composed of a Chrysanthemum rbcS1 promoter and 5′ UTR (SEQ ID NO: 10) and a Chrysanthemum rbcS1 3′UTR and terminator (SEQ ID NO: 11). The complete expression cassettes were cloned in the multiple cloning site of the pBINPLUS plant transformation vector (van Engelen et al., 1995, Transgenic Res 4: 288-290). FIG. 1 b—The synthetic genes coding for P4H beta-human, P4H alpha-human and P4H-plant (SEQ ID NOs: 12, 14 and 16) fused either to the vacuolar signal or to the apoplast signal (encoded by SEQ ID NO: 7) or without signals were cloned in expression cassettes composed of the CaMV 35S promoter and TMV omega sequence and Agrobacterium Nopaline synthetase (NOS) terminator carried by the vector pJD330 (Galili et al., 1987, Nucleic Acids Res 15: 3257-3273). The complete expression cassettes were cloned in the multiple cloning site of the pBINPLUS vectors carrying the expression cassettes of Col1 or Col2. FIG. 1 c—The synthetic genes coding for Proteinase C and Proteinase N (SEQ ID NOs: 18, 20) fused either to the vacuolar signal or to the apoplast signal (encoded by SEQ ID NO: 7) were cloned in expression cassettes composed of a Chrysanthemum rbcS1 promoter and 5′ UTR (SEQ ID NO: 10) and a Chrysanthemum rbcS1 3′UTR and terminator (SEQ ID NO: 11). The complete expression cassettes were cloned in the multiple cloning site of the pBINPLUS plant transformation vector. FIG. 1 d—The synthetic gene coding for LH3 (SEQ ID NO: 22) with flanking Strawberry vein banding virus (SVBV) promoter (NCBI accession AF331666 REGION: 623.950 version AF331666.1 GI:13345788) and terminated by Agrobacterium octopin synthase (OCS) terminator (NCBI accession Z37515 REGION: 1344.1538 version Z37515.1 GI:886843) fused either to the vacuolar signal or to the apoplast signal (encoded by SEQ ID NO: 7) or without signals was cloned in the multiple cloning site of the pBINPLUS vector carrying the expression cassettes of Col1 and P4H beta.

Co-transformations schemes utilizing the expression cassettes described in FIG. 1 into a host plant are illustrated in FIG. 2. Each expression cassette insert is represented by a short name of the coding sequence. The coding sequences and related SEQ ID NOs. are described in Table 1. Each co-transformation is preformed by two pBINPLUS binary vectors. Each rectangle represents a single pBINPLUS vector carrying one, two or three expression cassettes. Promoters and terminators are specified in FIG. 1.

Example 2 Plant Collagen Expression

Synthetic polynucleotide sequences encoding the proteins listed in Table 1 below were designed and optimized for expression in tobacco plants.

TABLE 1 List of expressed proteins Included Encoded SwissProt Amino Splicing in SEQ by SEQ Name: accession acids isoform Deletions name ID NO. ID NO. Collagen p02452 1442 One ER signal Col1 3 1 alpha 1(I) version chain [Precursor] Collagen p08123 1342 One ER signal Col2 6 4 alpha 2(I) Two changes version chain done in [Precursor] p08123: D549A and N249I Prolyl 4- p07237 487 One ER signal, P4H 13 12 hydroxylase version KDEL betaHuman beta subunit Prolyl 4- p13674 517 P13674-1 ER signal P4H 15 14 hydroxylase alphaHuman alpha-1 subunit Prolyl 4- No entry in 252 One Mitochondrial P4Hplant 17 16 hydroxylase Swissprot. version signal Plant NCBI predicted accession: as: aa1-39 gi: 15227885 Procollagen p13497 866 P13497- ER signal, Proteinase C 19 18 C- 1 BMP1-3 propeptide proteinase Procollagen o95450 958 O95450- ER signal, Proteinase N 21 20 I N- 1 LpNPI propeptide proteinase Lysyl o60568 714 One ER signal LH3 23 22 hydroxylase 3 version

Signal Peptides

(i) Vacuole signal sequence of barley gene for Thiol protease aleurain precursor (NCBI accession P05167 GI:113603)

(SEQ ID NO: 24) MAHARVLLLALAVLATAAVAVASSSSFADSNPIRPVTDRAASTLA.

(ii) Apoplast signal of Arabidopsis thaliana endo-1,4-beta-glucanase (Cell, NCBI accession CAA67156.1 GI:2440033); SEQ ID NO. 9, encoded by SEQ ID NO. 7.

Construction of Plasmids

Plant expression vectors were constructed as taught in Example 1, the composition of each constructed expression vector was confirmed via restriction analysis and sequencing.

Expression vectors including the following expression cassettes were constructed:

1. Collagen alpha 1 2. Collagen alpha 1+human P4H beta subunit 3. Collagen alpha 1+human P4H beta subunit+human LH3 4. Collagen alpha 2 5. Collagen alpha 2+with human P4H alpha subunit 6. Collagen alpha 2+with Arabidopsis P4H 7. Human P4H beta subunit+human LH3 8. Human P4H alpha subunit Each of the above described coding sequences was either translationally fused to a vacuole transit peptide or to an apoplasm transit peptide or was devoid of any transit peptide sequences, in which case cytoplasmic accumulation is expected.

Plant Transformation and PCR Screening

Tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum, Samsun NN) were transformed with the above described expression vectors according to the transformation scheme taught in FIG. 2.

Resultant transgenic plants were screened via multiplex PCR using four primers which were designed capable of amplifying a 324 bp fragment of Collagen alpha 1 and a 537 bp fragment of Collagen alpha 2 (Table 2). FIG. 3 illustrates the results of one mulitplex PCR screen.

TABLE 2 List of primers for multiplex PCR for amplification of a 324 bp fragment of Collagen alpha 1 and a 537 bp fragment of Collagen alpha 2 Col1 forward 5′ ATCACCAGGAGAACAGGGACCATC 3′ SEQ ID primer (24- 25 mer): Col1 reverse 5′ TCCACTTCCAAATCTCTATCC SEQ ID primer (29- CTAACAAC 3′ 26 mer): Co12 forward 5′ AGGCATTAGAGGCGATAAGGGAG 3′ SEQ ID primer (23- 27 mer): Co12 reverse 5′TCAATCCAATAATAGCCACTTGA SEQ ID primer (27- CCAC 3′ 28 mer):

Example 3 Detection of Human Collagen in Transgenic Tobacco Plants

Total soluble proteins were extracted from tobacco transformants 2, 3 and 4 by grinding 500 mg of leaves in 0.5 ml 50 mM Tris-HCl pH=7.5 with a “Complete” protease inhibitor cocktail (product #1836145 from Roche Diagnostics GmbH, 1 tablet per 50 ml buffer). The crude extract was mixed with 250 μl 4X Sample application buffer containing 10% beta-mercapto-ethanol and 8% SDS, the samples were boiled for 7 minutes and centrifuged for 8 minutes in 13000 rpm. 20 μl of the supernatant were loaded in a 10% polyacrylamide gel and tested with anti-Collagen I (denatured) antibody ((#AB745 from Chemicon Inc.) in a standard Western blot procedure (FIG. 4). W.T. is a wild type tobacco. Positive collagen bands are visible in plants that are PCR positive for collagen typel alpha 1 or alpha 2 or both. Positive control band of 500 ng collagen type I from human placenta (#CC050 from Chemicon Inc.) represents about 0.3% of the total soluble proteins (about 150 μg) in the samples from the transgenic plants.

Plants expressing collagen at the expected molecular weight up to ˜1% of the total soluble proteins were detected when collagen was targeted to the vacuole (FIG. 4). Subcellular targeting of full length collagen to the apoplast was successfully achieved (FIG. 5). Plants expressing collagen in the cytoplasm (i.e. no targeting peptide) did not accumulate collagen to detectable levels showing that subcellular targeting of collagen in plants is critical for success.

In addition in contrast to the studies of Ruggiero et al. 2000 and Merle et al. 2002 which showed that collagen lacking the N-propeptide was subjected to significant proteolysis, using the present approach full length collagen proteins with C-propeptide and N-propeptide accumulated in subcellular compartments at high levels.

The present data also clearly shows that crossing two plants each expressing a different collagen chain type is advantageous in that it enables selection of plants expressing optimal levels of each chain type and subsequent plant crossing to achieve the desired collagen producing plant.

Collagen produced by the plants of the present invention includes the native propeptides and therefore is expected to form a larger protein then the human control that was purified by proteolysis. The calculated molecular weight of Collagen alpha 1 and alpha 2 chains without hydroxylations or glycosylations are the following: Col1 with propeptides—136 kDa, Col1 without propeptides—95 kDa, Col2 with propeptides—127 kDa, Col2 without propeptides—92 kDa.

As can be seen in FIG. 4, the Col1 bands in transformants 3-5 and 3-49 appears larger then Col1 bands in other plants. This indicates prolines hydroxylation in collagen chains by human proline-4-hydroxylase holoenzyme composed of alpha and beta subunits that were coexpressed in these plants and targeted to the same subcellular compartment as the human collagen chains (e.g. vacuole).

Example 4 Collagen Triple Helix Assembly and Thermal Stability in Transgenic Plants

Assembly of collagen triple helix and the helix thermal stability in transgenic plants were tested by thermal denaturation followed by trypsin or pepsin digestion of the total crude protein extract of transgenic plants (FIGS. 6 a-b).

In a first experiment, total soluble proteins from tobacco 2-9 (expressing only col alfa1 and no P4H) and 3-5 (expressing both col alfa1+2 and P4H) were extracted by grinding 500 mg leaves in 0.5 ml of 50 mM Tris-HCl pH=7.5, centrifuging for 10 minutes in 13000 rpm and collecting the supernatant. 50 μl of the supernatant were subjected to heat treatment (15 minutes in 33° C. or 43° C.) and then immediately placed on ice. Trypsin digestion was initiated by adding to each sample 60 of 1 mg/ml Trypsin in 50 mM Tris-HCl pH=7.5. The samples were incubated for 20 minutes at room temperature (about 22° C.). The digestion was terminated by addition of 20 μl 4X sample application buffer containing 10% betamercaptoethanol and 8% SDS, the samples were boiled for 7 minutes and centrifuged for 7 minutes at 13000 rpm. 500 of the supernatant were loaded onto a 10% polyacrylamide gel and tested with anti-Collagen I antibody ((#AB745 from Chemicon Inc.) using a standard

Western blot procedure. Positive controls were samples of ˜500 ng human collagen I (#CC050 from Chemicon Inc., extracted from human placenta by pepsin digestion) which was added to 500 total soluble proteins extracted from w.t. tobacco.

As shown in FIG. 6 a, collagen triple helix that formed in plants #3-5 as well as control human collagen was resistant to denaturation at 33° C. In contrast, collagen formed by plants #2-9 denatured at 33° C. This difference in thermal stability indicates a successful triple helix assembly and post translational proline hydroxylation in transformants #3-5 which express both collagen alpha 1 and collagen alpha 2 as well as P4H beta and alpha subunits.

Two bands in transformants #2-9 may represent dimers or trimers, which are stable following 7 minutes of boiling with SDS and mercaptoethanol. Similar bands are visible in human collagen (upper panel) and in transformants #3-5. A possible explanation is a covalent bond between two peptides in different triple helixes (cross link), formed following oxidative deamination of two lysines by Lysine oxidase. In a second experiment, total soluble proteins from transgenic tobacco 13-6 (expressing collagen 1 alpha 1 and alpha 2 chains—pointed by arrows, human P4H alpha and beta subunits and human LH3) were extracted by grinding 500 mg of leaves in 0.5 ml of 100 mM Tris-HCl pH=7.5 and 300 mM NaCl, centrifuging for 7 minutes at 10000 rpm and collecting the supernatant. 500 of the supernatant was subjected to heat treatment (20 minutes in 33° C., 38° C. or 42° C.) and then immediately placed on ice. Pepsin digestion was initiated by adding to each sample 4.50 of 0.1M HCl and 40 of 2.5 mg/ml Pepsin in 10 mM acetic acid. The samples were incubated for 30 minutes at room temperature (about 22° C.). The digestion was terminated by adding 50 of unbuffered 1 M Tris. Each sample was mixed with 22 μl 4X Sample application buffer containing 10% beta-mercapto-ethanol and 8% SDS, boiled for 7 minutes and centrifuged for 7 minutes in 13000 rpm. 400 of the supernatant were loaded in a 10% polyacrylamide gel and tested with anti-Collagen I antibody ((#AB745 from Chemicon Inc.) in a standard Western blot procedure. Positive control was sample of ˜50 ng human collagen I (#CC050 from Chemicon Inc., extracted from human placenta by pepsin digestion) added to total soluble proteins from w.t. tobacco.

As is illustrated in FIG. 6 b, collagen triple helix that formed in plant #13-6 was resistant to denaturation at 42° C. Cleavage of the propetides is first visible at 33° C. and gradually increases in efficiency when the temperature is raised to 38° C. and again to 42° C. The cleaved collagen triple helix domain shows a similar migration on the gel to the migration of the pepsin treated human collagen. The human collagen that was used in this experiment was extracted from human placenta by pepsin proteolysis and therefore lacks the propeptides and some of the telopeptides.

Example 5 Plant P4H Expression

Induction of Native Plant P4H

Tobacco P4H cDNA was cloned and used as a probe to determine conditions and treatments that would induce endogenous P4H expression. Northern blot analysis (FIG. 7) clearly shows that P4H is expressed at relatively high levels in the shoot apex and at low levels in leaves. P4H level was induced significantly in leaves 4 hours following abrasion treatment (“wounded” in the lower panel). Similar results were achieved using other stress conditions (not shown).

Detection of Human P4H Alpha and Beta Subunits and Collagen Alpha I and Alpha 2 Chains in Transgenic Tobacco Plants

Detection of human P4H alpha and beta subunits and collagen type I alpha 1 and alpha 2 chains in transgenic tobacco plants was effected using anti-human P4H alpha subunit antibody (#63-163 from ICN Biomedicals Inc.), anti-human P4H beta subunit antibody (#MAB2701 from Chemicon Inc.) and anti-Collagen I antibody (#AB745 from Chemicon Inc.). The results of a western blot probed with these antibodies are shown in FIG. 8.

Expression of P4H alpha, P4H beta and collagen 1 alpha 1 and alpha 2 bands was confirmed in plant 13-6 (also transformed also with human LH3). The calculated molecular weights of P4H alpha and beta including the vacuolar signal peptide are 65.5 kDa and 53.4 kDa respectively. The calculated molecular weights of Collagen alpha 1 and alpha 2 chains with propeptides, without hydroxylations or glycosylations are 136 kDa and 127 kDa respectively.

Example 6 Vacuolar Targeted Collagen is Stably Expressed in Dark-Grown Plants

Collagen Expressing Plants

The 20-279 parental tobacco plant line was generated by co-transformation with an expression vector expressing P4Hbeta+LH3 and another expression vector expressing P4Halpha. Each gene is preceded by a vacuolar targeting determinant of aleurain, a plant vacuolar thiolprotease,

The 2-300 parental tobacco plant line was generated by co-transformation with an expression vector expressing col1 and another expression vector expressing col2. Each gene is preceded by a vacuolar targeting determinant of aleurain, a plant vacuolar thiolprotease.

The 13-652 plant was generated by co-transformation of tobacco plant with an expression vector encoding Col1, P4Hbeta and LH3 and a second expression vector encoding Col2 and P4H alpha. Each gene is preceded by a vacuolar targeting determinant of aleurain, a plant vacuolar thiol protease, Cassete sequences included in the vectors are described in Example 1 above.

Light and Darkness Trial

Analysis of six 13-6/52 homozygote plants. Samples from leaf #4+5/6 were taken daily at the same time (12:30) for 8 days, from 3 plants that were grown at regular conditions (16 hours under light conditions and 8 hours in the dark) and from 3 plants that were grown only in the dark.

Total Protein Extraction and Western Blot Analysis

Ninety mg of tobacco leaves were homogenized by mixer mill Type MM301 (Retsch) in an extraction buffer (100 mM Tris HCl pH=7.5, protease inhibitor cocktail available from Roche Catalog Number, 04-693-116-001) at 4° C. Following 30 min of centrifugation (20,000×g at 4° C.), the supernatant was collected. Protein samples were fractionated on 8% SDS-PAGE (Laemmli 1970) and transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane using BIO-RAD™ Protein TRANS-BLOT™ apparatus. The membrane was blocked for 30 min at room temperature in 3% (g/v) skim milk (Difco), and then reacted with either commercial rabbit anti-human collagen type I polyclonal antibodies (Chemicon), for over night (o.n.) at room temperature. The membrane was rinsed with water 3-5 times and then washed for 30 min in TBS. Following incubation with a secondary antibody [goat anti rabbit-IgG antibody conjugated to alkaline phosphatase (chemicon)] for 2 hours at room temperature, the membrane was rinsed with water for 3-5 times and washed for 30 min in TBS. Immunodetection was effected with nitrotetrazolium blue chloride (NBT, Sigma) and 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl phosphate p-toluidine salt (BCIP, Sigma), at room temperature for 2 hour—o.n.

Results

As shown in FIG. 9, tobacco plants transgenic for vacuolar targeted collagen express Proa1 and Proa2 (lane 1). Collagen from dark grown vacuolar targeted plants exhibited similar stability (lane 2), substantiating the exceptional stability of collagen generated according to the teachings of the present invention

It is appreciated that certain features of the invention, which are, for clarity, described in the context of separate embodiments, may also be provided in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features of the invention, which are, for brevity, described in the context of a single embodiment, may also be provided separately or in any suitable subcombination.

Although the invention has been described in conjunction with specific embodiments thereof, it is evident that many alternatives, modifications and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, it is intended to embrace all such alternatives, modifications and variations that fall within the spirit and broad scope of the appended claims. All publications, patents and patent applications and GenBank Accession numbers mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated in their entirety by reference into the specification, to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent or patent application or GenBank Accession number was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated herein by reference. In addition, citation or identification of any reference in this application shall not be construed as an admission that such reference is available as prior art to the present invention.

REFERENCES Other References are Cited in the Document

-   1. Bulleid N J, John D C, Kadler K E. Recombinant expression systems     for the production of collagen. Biochem Soc Trans. 2000;     28(4):350-3. Review. PMID: 10961917 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE] -   2. Hare P D, Cress W A. Metabolic implications of stress-induced     proline accumulation in plants. Plant Growth Regulation 1997; 21:     79-102. -   3. Hieta R, Myllyharju J. Cloning and characterization of a low     molecular weight prolyl 4-hydroxylase from Arabidopsis thaliana.     Effective hydroxylation of proline-rich, collagen-like, and     hypoxia-inducible transcription factor alpha-like peptides. J Biol.     Chem. 2002 Jun. 28; 277(26):23965-71. Epub 2002 Apr. 25. PMID:     11976332 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE] -   4. Hulmes D J. Building collagen molecules, fibrils, and     suprafibrillar structures. J Struct Biol. 2002 January-February;     137(1-2):2-10. Review. PMID: 12064927 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE] -   5. Inkinen K. Connective tissue formation in wound healing. An     experimental study. Academic Dissertation, September 2003.     University of Helsinki, Faculty of Science, Department of     Biosciences, Division of Biochemistry (ISBN 952-10-1313-3)     http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/mat/bioti/vk/inkinen/ -   6. Merle C, Perret S, Lacour T, Jonval V, Hudaverdian S, Garrone R,     Ruggiero F, Theisen M. Hydroxylated human homotrimeric collagen I in     Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transient expression and in     transgenic tobacco plant. FEBS Lett. 2002 Mar. 27; 515(1-3):114-8.     PMID: 11943205 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE] -   7. Olsen D, Yang C, Bodo M, Chang R, Leigh S, Baez J, Carmichael D,     Perala M, Hamalainen E R, Jarvinen M, Polarek J. Recombinant     collagen and gelatin for drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2003     Nov. 28; 55(12):1547-67. PMID: 14623401 [PubMed—in process] -   8. Ruggiero F, Exposito J Y, Bournat P, Gruber V, Perret S, Comte J,     Olagnier B, Garrone R, Theisen M.

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-   9. Tanaka M, Sato K, Uchida T. Plant prolyl hydroxylase recognizes     poly(L-proline) II helix. J Biol. Chem. 1981 Nov. 25;     256(22):11397-400. PMID: 6271746 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE] -   10. Wang C, Luosujarvi H, Heikkinen J, Risteli M, Uitto L,     Myllyla R. The third activity for lysyl hydroxylase 3:     galactosylation of hydroxylysyl residues in collagens in vitro.     Matrix Biol. 2002 November; 21(7):559-66. PMID: 12475640     [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE] 

What is claimed:
 1. A method of producing collagen comprising expressing in a plant cell at least one type of a collagen alpha chain including a signal peptide for targeting to a vacuole and enabling accumulation of said collagen alpha chain in said vacuole, and further expressing in said plant cell an exogenous mammalian prolyl 4 hydroxylase (P4H) including a signal peptide for targeting to said vacuole and enabling accumulation of said P4H in said vacuole wherein said P4H is devoid of an ER retention sequence, thereby producing the collagen.
 2. A genetically modified plant or isolated plant cell comprising an exogenous polynucleotide sequence encoding at least one type of a collagen alpha chain and an exogenous polynucleotide sequence encoding mammalian P4H, each of said at least one type of collagen alpha chain and said mammalian P4H being attached to a vacuole transit peptide, wherein said mammalian P4H is devoid of an ER retention signal and wherein said at least one type of collagen alpha chain is accumulated in a vacuole devoid of endogenous P4H activity.
 3. A plant system comprising: a first genetically modified plant comprising (i) an exogenous polynucleotide sequence encoding a collagen alpha 1 chain; and (ii) an exogenous polynucleotide sequence encoding mammalian P4H; and a second genetically modified plant comprising: (i) an exogenous polynucleotide sequence encoding a collagen alpha 2 chain; and (ii) an exogenous polynucleotide sequence encoding mammalian P4H, wherein each of said collagen alpha 1 chain, said collagen alpha 2 chain and said mammalian P4H is attached to a vacuole transit peptide, wherein said mammalian P4H is devoid of an ER retention signal and wherein said first genetically modified plant is capable of accumulating said collagen alpha 1 chain and said second genetically modified plant is capable of accumulating said collagen alpha 2 chain.
 4. A method of producing fibrillar collagen comprising: (a) expressing in a first plant a collagen alpha 1 chain and a mammalian P4H and expressing in a second plant collagen alpha 2 and a mammalian P4H, wherein said collagen alpha 1 chain and said collagen alpha 2 chain includes a signal peptide for targeting to a vacuole and enabling accumulation in said vacuole, and said mammalian prolyl 4 hydroxylase (P4H) includes a signal peptide for targeting to said vacuole and enabling accumulation in said vacuole, wherein said P4H is devoid of an ER retention sequence; (b) crossing said first plant and said second plant; and (c) selecting progeny expressing said collagen alpha 1 chain and said collagen alpha 2 chain thereby producing fibrillar collagen.
 5. A plant system comprising: a first genetically modified plant comprising: (i) an exogenous polynucleotide sequence encoding a collagen alpha 1 chain; and (ii) an exogenous polynucleotide sequence encoding a collagen alpha 2 chain; and a second genetically modified plant comprising an exogenous polynucleotide encoding mammalian P4H, wherein each of said collagen alpha 1 chain, said collagen alpha 2 chain and said mammalian P4H is attached to a vacuole transit peptide, wherein said mammalian P4H is devoid of an ER retention signal and wherein said first genetically modified plant is capable of accumulating said collagen alpha 1 chain and said collagen alpha 2 chain in a vacuole devoid of endogenous P4H activity.
 6. The plant system of claim 5, wherein said second genetically modified plant expresses an exogenous polypeptide selected from the group consisting of LH3, protease N and protease C.
 7. A nucleic acid construct comprising a polynucleotide encoding a mammalian P4H attached to a vacuole transit peptide, said polynucleotide being positioned under the transcriptional control of a promoter functional in plant cells.
 8. The nucleic acid construct of claim 7, wherein said promoter is selected from the group consisting of the CaMV 35S promoter, the Ubiquitin promoter, the rbcS promoter and the SVBV promoter.
 9. The genetically modified plant or isolated plant cell of claim 2, wherein said collagen is type I collagen.
 10. The genetically modified plant or isolated plant cell of claim 2, wherein said collagen is human collagen and encoded by SEQ ID NOs: 1 and
 4. 11. The method of claim 1, further comprising expressing an exogenous polypeptide which is LH3 in said vacuole.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein said at least one type of said collagen alpha chain comprises alpha 1 chain.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein said at least one type of said collagen alpha chain comprises alpha 2 chain.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein said at least one type of said collagen alpha chain comprises a C-terminus and/or an N-terminus propeptide.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein said exogenous mammalian P4H is capable of specifically hydroxylating the Y position of Gly-X-Y triplets of said at least one type of said collagen chain.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the plant is subjected to a stress condition.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein said stress condition is selected from the group consisting of drought, salinity, injury, cold and spraying with stress inducing compounds.
 18. The method of claim 1, further comprising isolating the collagen following the producing.
 19. The method of claim 4, further comprising isolating the collagen following said selecting.
 20. The plant system of claim 3, wherein each of said collagen alpha 1 chain and said collagen alpha 2 chain comprises a C-terminus and/or an N-terminus propeptide.
 21. The genetically modified plant or plant cell of claim 2, further comprising an exogenous lysyl hydroxylase (LH3) in said vacuole.
 22. A recombinant collagen, having been produced according to the method of claim
 1. 23. The recombinant collagen of claim 22 being stable for 15 minutes at 33 degrees as assayed by Western blot.
 24. The recombinant collagen of claim 22, wherein said plant or said plant cells express an exogenous polypeptide selected from the group consisting of lysyl hydroxylase 3 (LH3), protease N and protease C.
 25. The recombinant collagen of claim 22, being a type I collagen.
 26. The recombinant collagen of claim 22, being a human collagen.
 27. The recombinant collagen of claim 22, comprising an alpha 1 chain and an alpha 2 chain.
 28. The recombinant collagen of claim 22, wherein said at least one type of a collagen chain comprises an alpha chain.
 29. The recombinant collagen of claim 22, wherein said at least one type of a collagen chain comprises a C terminus and/or an N-terminus propeptide. 